| 词汇 | example_english_payoff |
| 释义 | Examples of payoffThese examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors. In general, this outcome will not maximize aggregate payoffs. In an adaptive learning model, individuals use the knowledge of these payoffs to form their expectations. The sub-game perfect equilibrium extraction paths (and payoffs) of the closed-loop solution incorporate both the stock and strategic externality. Each person's individual payoffs and accumulated payoffs were private information. Reported emissions fall because a higher tax raises the cost of compliance and thus increases the payoffs from tax evasion. The point of interest is the large inequity between the payoffs. The first two of these give the payoffs for taking one at the last free move. An individual must correctly perceive his own realized payoffs, but he need not realize that he interacts strategically with others. Although mutualistic payoffs might encourage participation in group hunts, these payoffs are only insured through rules of distribution that benefit participants. In order to address important issues that involve large sums of money, some psychologists advocate using high hypothetical payoffs. The latter leaves unanswered why "small" payoffs sometimes yield good results, and why increasing payoffs do not always yield better results. The other key variables they mention (scripts, repetition, and performance-based payoffs) seem to concern empirical issues, but deception is a different matter. The implication of his argument is that hypothetical payoffs may suffice to study people's decisions. In this framework it makes little sense to ask people to report preferences over outcomes in a game defined only by payoffs. I cannot hope to solve this problem, for unlike where rational payoffs are concerned, moral "payoffs" could never admit of any great precision. When payoffs are in between thresholds, uncertainty looms large. We thus have a major disjuncture between the dominant theoretical direction on the issue of coalition payoffs and the available evidence. More concretely, they consider the possibility that consumers on contracts are temporarily excluded from receipts of contingent payoffs with a positive probability. The unique equilibrium is a low quality outcome; as they observe payoffs and learn, all producers gravitate to a low quality strategy. Although payoffs may not have been symmetric, this part of my argument only relies on ordinal utilities. While players know the mean payoffs of each outcome, they only know the distribution of the stochastic component. Because the payoffs have stochastic components, each of these choices has a probability of being selected. Each of these payoffs is a parameter that can be changed. The discount factor weights the importance of these future payoffs relative to payoffs today. We expect such variables to have a positive impact on the option of running for re-election, since they increase the payoffs for staying in office. The payoffs to the players decline linearly as the distance of the outcome from each player's ideal point rises. However, we suspect that this implication is quite sensitive to the choice of asset payoffs under consideration. In assessing the nature of portfolio payoffs, we must take account of quality as well as quantity. Is this an accurate portrayal of the payoffs for formateurs or is it simply the result of some deficiency in the weighting scheme? 179 of the expected difference between reward and payoffs to suppliers. Since this outcome maximizes total payoffs globally, it clearly must be the efficient equilibrium. Thus, it is equal to the maximum total welfare achievable in rationalizable outcomes of the original game and the lower bound on total payoffs increases. First, the returns may not be comparable because we are generating returns on securities with payoffs denominated in terms of the consumption good. Each investor trades in the market to hedge the risk to his endowment and to speculate on future security payoffs using his private information. However, under the assumption of homogeneous beliefs about the covariance matrix of future payoffs, short-sale constraints will only increase risky asset prices. An illustration of the model shows that watershed conservation projects may have very high payoffs, even before assessing existence values and other forest amenities. Players have only to observe the strategic payoffs and adopt the best strategies through an evolutionary process. Needless to say, this consideration potentially undercuts any empirical conclusions reached about portfolio payoffs. On the one hand, insurance payoffs for high-income earners are "back-loaded" with contributions in middle age and benefits in old age. The great potential payoffs from successfully navigating reallife coordination games may have been part of the selective pressure favoring the evolution of language and culture. We argue that two other variables - prime ministerial approval and party identification - also have potentially important theoretical payoffs. Since the payoffs from corruption are lower, there is greater reporting of emissions. If the firm offers the inspector a bribe, actual and reported emissions are chosen to maximize the joint payoffs of the firm and inspector. The variable payoffs evidently reflect actual human psychology, since in real human societies some, but not all, similarly situated individuals exploit others. Since these maximize payoffs over the whole matrix, they must also constitute a best-response to the other player's action that supports this outcome. In these, the players' payoffs differ, so that which of these equilibria each prefers depends on whether b or c is larger. The average payoffs, standard deviations and the resulting games at the village level are presented in tables 8 to 10. In some games, the payoffs may represent a social dilemma only after unselfish motives and values are factored in. An analysis of payoffs in a simplified, flat biofilm with horizontally separated players is therefore more instructive. Although this is one way to understand the utility payoffs in game theory, it is not the only way; and it has some disadvantages. If the revealedpreference theorist were right and payoffs already represented what strategy was chosen, there would be nothing left for game theory to do. If the payoffs were indices of preference*, then they would say how individuals would choose. Note that the payoffs in question are longterm ultimate payoffs of strategies, reckoned over the life span of individuals. Note also that the payoffs do not necessarily equate either to survival or to happiness. Moreover, "team reasoning" completely fails if the pure coordination game has nonconstant payoffs when coordination is not achieved. We thus owe some demonstration of payoffs in these terms. Many theoretical predictions about coalition formation, payoffs and duration are easily tested using data from actual political events. In other words, in a controlled laboratory setting, individuals solve social dilemmas and achieve substantially greater payoffs than predicted once communication is allowed. In all these cases, we are generally assuming that the agents already know the payoffs associated with each of their actions. The concept of equity (or inequity) is now viewed from the perspective of a transformed perception of the payoffs. The initial success obtained by few defectors is quickly learned by the other agents, leading to lower and lower payoffs. In contrast, the empirical estimates typically are computed from data generated by a monetary economy and then the payoffs are deflated. In contrast, the over-funding approach proportionally increases the payoffs in each nonabsorbing state of the world. Investors can achieve a larger set of possible payoffs. There also may be other securities with payoffs contingent on public information. To analyse the adaptive learning process, we need expressions for expected payoffs from cooperation and defection in an environment. The projected payoffs were practical and theoretical coherence within an evolving, increasingly autonomous discipline as well as social validation and prestige. As with much progressive reform, ideologically motivated reformers responded to popular pressures, took the initiative, and hoped for electoral payoffs. Whether the value or simply the quantity of portfolios is considered, relative payoffs among these parties seem to follow very closely the proportionality principle. We are convinced that a common language of scientific discovery and theory-testing, in addition to experimental practices grounded in empirical evidence, promise high payoffs. They found that only for games that involved heavy player promotion and high payoffs, male monozygotic twins were similar in their frequency of gambling. Such people may provide for themselves, as they would be influenced by lower payoffs and could possibly face old age poverty. Before the insured dies, the payoffs from the puts already at maturity in the portfolio would have to be somehow reinvested. As noticed in the previous section, once the insurer has valued the contract, he can replicate the stochastic payoffs with a hedging strategy. Next, there is the information about the payoffs. They care not just about the payoffs to themselves, but about the payoffs to others. The payoffs in some cells require an explanation. In an indirect evolutionary model, players receive objective payoffs, but make decisions based on the transformation of these material rewards into intrinsic preferences. Given this logic, cues of relatedness between individuals may change the payoffs attributed to different behaviors. Such motivations and others, in various combinations, can add many layers of complexity to a game-theoretic analysis of the payoffs. First, the prevailing payoffs in experimental games are not the same as the specified payoffs. The figure shows traces of the agents' payoffs (left) and utility values (right). The initial success obtained by few defectors is learned by the others, leading to lower and lower payoffs. In many cases, subjects are more concerned with increasing social welfare than with reducing differences in payoffs. Actually, this risk must be faced by insurance companies and pension plans that have guaranteed lifelong payoffs. Secondly, rationalist equilibria emerge when payoffs achieve certain 'thresholds', making confusion and error less likely. First, the likelihood of civil conflict is highest when key payoffs are in their intermediate regions, resulting in ambiguous decision-making processes. Findings from multiple experiments have been inconsistent with a theory that presumes individuals maximize short-term, objective payoffs to self alone. A fundamental divide has emerged over how portfolio payoffs are distributed among parties in parliamentary coalitions. The probabilities that one rival or both end up with strictly negative (or positive) payoffs cannot be calculated analytically. Whether altering the size of the winning coalition through institutional change increases or decreases the payoffs to the members depends upon the initial conditions. In some cases our hypotheses are not relevant, for instance when the ranking of payoffs does not correspond to a symmetric game. In such optimal dynamic insurance, two-period insurance payoffs are contingent on voluntary reports of realized incomes from each middle-aged consumer. To solve such a problem, consider first the specification of payoffs. On the other hand, opening the collar market changes the amount of information about future stock payoffs that uninformed investor 2 extracts from prices. Security payoffs then should be made contingent only on the information that is publicly available. Recall that all agents observe all states and know the states and their payoffs. Note that the punishment payoffs produced different motivations for victims and non-victims. These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors. |
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